Marking of radioelements (imported, active). Pinout and marking of Soviet radio components How to “read” wirewound resistors

Program Color and Code is intended to determine the brand of a radio component by color or code marking. After determining the brand, the program displays the main characteristics of radio components. Color and Code has a built-in reference for radio components.

Has the following functionality:

Supported definition:

Resistors
Capacitors
Transistors
Diodes
Zener diodes
Varicaps
Inductance
Chip components

Characteristics output:

the program has its own database of characteristics, and after determining the type of element (transistor, diode...) its characteristics are displayed.

Directory:

if you know the type of element, you can call up the directory and, by switching through the element database (transistor, diode...), find the element you are interested in and view its characteristics.

In addition, the directory can work both in the mode of displaying the overall dimensions of housings (for example TO-220 ...) and in the display mode functional diagrams(chip base).

Reference system:

the program is equipped with its own help system, which contains a description of the program, radio elements, training examples, etc.

Visual set:

To make it easier to determine the type/value of an element, a visual set has been implemented, i.e. The required sign/color is drawn/painted on the sample.

Additional features:

The program is equipped with removable toolbars (for each type of element, only its labels remain, which does not clutter the interface and allows you to quickly navigate the program)
- there is a “Calculator” module containing a series of electrical calculations;
- if you are a developer, use the "Merge databases" module;

The program does not require installation or registration, it works immediately after downloading

Platform: Windows 7, Vista, XP
Interface language: Russian, English
Medicine: Not required
Size: 12.82 MB

Download Color and Code 6.8 (Portable)

In recent years, semiconductor manufacturers have streamlined their product mix and the number of devices offered has decreased slightly. However, this is difficult to notice when viewing component catalogs, where the number various devices just one type can be at least several hundred. For a large, professional supplier, several thousand semiconductors will be available in catalogs.

This is why even experienced radio engineers should be careful when selecting components, because it is easy to make mistakes when there are so many components of the same type, many of which have similar markings. Otherwise, you risk buying the wrong device/component or the right component but the wrong version.

Anatomy of marking

There will be no mistakes if you understand the basic anatomy of semiconductor component markings. Of course, this will not solve all problems, but you must know the three components of marking.

Usually the markings include prefix, which provides some basic information about the device, but the encoding methods used are very simple and never tell you about a specific device. However, when purchasing components, the prefix can be (and quite often is) very important.

The second part is basic(as if serial number products) and has three or four digits.

The third part - suffix, provides some additional information about the device, but it is not always present, especially for transistors and diodes. It is only necessary if there are two or more different versions devices.

Again, this is important when purchasing components and you can easily get wrong version, if the device has an incorrect suffix. There are many examples of identical devices that have different suffixes.

Middle management

The main part is the simplest part of the marking semiconductor elements. The first device of this type to be registered may be numbered “0001”, the next one “0002”, etc.

In practice, this doesn't quite work that way, and some transistor manufacturers start labeling their products with "100" rather than "001". But that doesn't matter.

A significant disadvantage of this marking method is the presence more semiconductor devices than available numbers (3 or 4 digits).

For example, a device labeled "555" could be a popular timer integrated circuit (IC), a transistor with a European type number, and perhaps something else, such as another type of integrated circuit or optical device.

Thus, basic numeric markings are important but are not sufficient on their own to accurately identify an item.

To select the appropriate element, you must pay attention to other parts of the marking.

Start over

The first part of the marking ( prefix) performs two functions, and for European manufacturers, this part of the marking provides some basic information about the type of device. It is somewhat similar and takes its origins from the marking of vacuum tubes, but in relation to solid-state devices, the first letter indicates the type of semiconductor material used or the type of integrated circuit:

The second letter indicates the device type, as in Table 2.

Note that elements for industrial applications are marked with three letters.

For example, the BC550 is a small silicon transistor for audio or other low-frequency applications, while the BF181 is a low-power silicon transistor for RF use.

One less

Simple semiconductors American manufacturers are marked according to the JEDEC (Joint Electron Devices Engineering Council) system and have a prefix consisting of a number followed by the letter N. Digit per unit less quantity pins that the device has, which in practice means 1 for diodes and zener diodes (i.e. two pins), “2” for conventional transistors and “3” or more for special devices, such as dual-gate MOSFETs and so on.

So the 1N4148 is a device that has two terminals, which usually means a diode. This is actually a small diode, but this information is not displayed in the JEDEC type markings, which turn out to be less informative than the European Pro Electron.

Nowadays markings are not often found Japanese JIS (Japanese Industrial Standards) system, but the first digit in it is again a number that is one less than the number of pins of the element. Then follow two letters that identify general type devices:

As you can see, for conventional transistor types the first two digits are always "2S" and are perhaps a bit useless, so these two digits are often omitted when labeling elements.

Manufacturer

Most electronic components are marked according to the standard methods listed. But there are also exceptions. (Fig. 1).

Here the TIP prefix of this power transistor indicates that it is a plastic packaged power transistor from Texas Instruments. However, the manufacturer put the MOSPEC logo on the front, so the prefix became the second element of the marking.

This often occurs in the marking of integrated circuits, where the manufacturer adds its own coding to the standard type marking.

Fig.2. This integrated circuit has the designation "LM" as a prefix, indicating that it is a National Semiconductor product.

As a few examples: the prefixes "CA" and "MC" are used by KCA and Motorola, respectively. Due to the fact that the same element can be produced by different manufacturers and labeled differently, difficulties arise with identifying the elements.

Of course, the presence of several manufacturers on the market gives rise to competition, which, as a consequence, reduces prices for radioelements. This is good for us. On the other hand, each manufacturer adds something different to the labeling of elements, thereby making it difficult for us to identify them.

When browsing through an integrated circuit catalog, it's probably best to ignore prefix and focus on the other two labeling elements. Moreover, component suppliers often do not guarantee the supply of devices from specific manufacturers. If you order (say) MC1458CP. but they sent you CA1458E. or vice versa, there is no reason to worry. Both ICs are 1458 dual op amps and there is no practical difference between them. The MC1458CP is made by Motorola or Texas Instruments, and the CA1458E is made by RCA.

Variety of options

Most transistors do not have a suffix in the labeling. Where present, the suffix is ​​usually a single letter and indicates a gain or some other parameter. Typically, transistors with a low gain are marked with the letter “A”, transistors with a medium gain with the letter “B” and with a high gain with the letter “C”. Specific values ​​or range are indicated in the datasheet for the element.

Therefore, if the diagram shows a transistor with the suffix “B”, you can safely replace it with a transistor with the suffix “C”. When replaced with an element with the suffix “A”, its amplification may not be enough and the device will refuse to work or will often go into overload.

There are situations (fortunately, quite rare) when the suffix indicates the location of the terminals of the element. For transistors, these are designated "L" or "K". Most transistors have one typical configuration conclusions. But if your device does not work for unknown reasons, check if you have any transistors with such suffixes.

With integrated circuits the situation is the opposite. Here, manufacturers often use a suffix to designate the type of housing. And if you ignore the suffix when ordering or specify the wrong one, you risk receiving a chip in a design that will not be compatible with your printed circuit board option.

The situation is complicated by the fact that there are no standards for suffixes and each manufacturer uses its own types of marking. So be extremely careful when ordering microcircuits!

Frequency marking

Some integrated circuits have a suffix that indicates the clock speed of the device. This system is used in conjunction with memory and some other computer chips such as microcontrollers and microprocessors. In most cases, the additional numbers are actually an extension of the main part of the marking, and not a suffix, since the suffix will be present in the marking and, as mentioned above, will most likely indicate the type of case.

Some PIC microcontrollers, for example, have something like "-20" added to the base number type. Additional markings indicate the maximum clock speed (in megahertz) for the chip. You can quite safely use an element with a higher clock frequency than the one listed in the components list. However, more quick versions, usually, much more expensive than slow ones.

And technology...

But, alas, not everything is so simple. Especially with integrated circuits. The 74th series (TTL) of logic integrated circuits was the main one, the progenitor of other series and was originally marked according to the stated rules: prefix-main part-suffix. When marking subsequent, improved series, manufacturers began to deviate from the standard marking - between the prefix “74” and the base number they began to add markings indicating the family of microcircuits:

This marking may indicate the manufacturing technology and, as a result, the speed (frequency), supply voltage and other parameters.

Therefore the original device 7420 today may be labeled as 74HC20, 74MCT20 and 74LS20. These are all different families of chips that incompatible between themselves. Therefore, when ordering, it is important to choose the right type!

And current!

A similar situation exists with the popularly loved integrated stabilizers L78XX and L79XX. Here, two numbers are added to the basic designation, indicating the output voltage of the stabilizers: L7805 - output voltage 5V, L7912 - output voltage -12V.

But in the middle of the number there may be letters that indicate the maximum output current of the stabilizer. Three marking options are possible, as shown in the table:

So a stabilizer marked “78L15” will produce an output voltage of 15V and a maximum current of 100mA.

Be careful when reading manufacturers' catalogs and be careful when ordering electronic components!

The article was prepared based on materials from the magazine “Practical Electronics Every Day”

Free translation: Editor-in-Chief « »

Content:

Beginning radio amateurs are often faced with the problem of identifying radio components on diagrams and correctly reading their markings. The main difficulty lies in the large number of names of elements, which are represented by transistors, resistors, capacitors, diodes and other parts. Its practical implementation and normal operation of the finished product largely depend on how correctly the diagram is read.

Resistors

Resistors include radio components that have a strictly defined resistance to the electric current flowing through them. This function designed to reduce the current in the circuit. For example, to make a lamp shine less brightly, power is supplied to it through a resistor. The higher the resistance of the resistor, the less the lamp will glow. For fixed resistors, the resistance remains unchanged, while variable resistors can change their resistance from zero to the maximum possible value.

Each constant resistor has two main parameters - power and resistance. The power value is indicated on the diagram not with alphabetic or numerical symbols, but with the help of special lines. The power itself is determined by the formula: P = U x I, that is, equal to the product of voltage and current. This parameter is important because a particular resistor can only withstand a certain amount of power. If this value is exceeded, the element will simply burn out, since heat is released during the passage of current through the resistance. Therefore, in the figure, each line marked on the resistor corresponds to a certain power.

There are other ways to designate resistors in diagrams:

1. On circuit diagrams the serial number is indicated in accordance with the location (R1) and the resistance value is equal to 12K. The letter “K” is a multiple prefix and means 1000. That is, 12K corresponds to 12,000 ohms or 12 kilo-ohms. If the letter “M” is present in the marking, this indicates 12,000,000 ohms or 12 megaohms.
2. In marking with letters and numbers, the letter symbols E, K and M correspond to certain multiple prefixes. So the letter E = 1, K = 1000, M = 1000000. The decoding of the symbols will look like this: 15E - 15 Ohm; K15 - 0.15 Ohm - 150 Ohm; 1K5 - 1.5 kOhm; 15K - 15 kOhm; M15 - 0.15M - 150 kOhm; 1M2 - 1.5 mOhm; 15M - 15mOhm.
3. In this case, only digital designations are used. Each includes three digits. The first two of them correspond to the value, and the third - to the multiplier. Thus, the factors are: 0, 1, 2, 3 and 4. They indicate the number of zeros added to the base value. For example, 150 - 15 Ohm; 151 - 150 Ohm; 152 - 1500 Ohm; 153 - 15000 Ohm; 154 - 120000 Ohm.

Fixed resistors

The name of constant resistors is associated with their nominal resistance, which remains unchanged throughout the entire period of operation. They differ depending on the design and materials.

Wire elements consist of metal wires. In some cases, high resistivity alloys may be used. The basis for winding the wire is a ceramic frame. These resistors have high nominal accuracy, but a serious drawback is the presence of a large self-inductance. In the manufacture of film metal resistors, a metal with high resistivity is sprayed onto a ceramic base. Due to their qualities, such elements are most widely used.

The design of carbon fixed resistors can be film or volumetric. In this case, the qualities of graphite as a material with high resistivity are used. There are other resistors, for example, integral ones. They are used in specific integrated circuits where the use of other elements is not possible.

Variable resistors

Beginning radio amateurs often confuse a variable resistor with a variable capacitor, since in appearance they are very similar to each other. However, they have completely different functions, and there are also significant differences in how they are represented on the circuit diagrams.

The design of a variable resistor includes a slider that rotates along the resistive surface. Its main function is to adjust the parameters, which consists in changing the internal resistance to the desired value. The operation of the volume control in audio equipment and other similar devices is based on this principle. All adjustments are made by smoothly changing voltage and current in electronic devices.

The main parameter of a variable resistor is its resistance, which can vary within certain limits. In addition, it has an installed power that it must withstand. All types of resistors have these qualities.

On domestic circuit diagrams, elements of variable type are indicated in the form of a rectangle, on which two main and one additional terminal are marked, located vertically or passing through the icon diagonally.

In foreign diagrams, the rectangle is replaced by a curved line indicating an additional output. Next to the designation is the English letter R with the serial number of a particular element. The value of the nominal resistance is indicated next to it.

Connection of resistors

In electronics and electrical engineering, resistor connections are often used in various combinations and configurations. For greater clarity, you should consider a separate section of the circuit with serial, parallel and.

In a series connection, the end of one resistor is connected to the beginning of the next element. Thus, all resistors are connected one after another, and a total current of the same value flows through them. Between the start and end points there is only one path for current to flow. As the number of resistors connected into a common circuit increases, there is a corresponding increase in the total resistance.

A connection is considered parallel when the starting ends of all resistors are combined at one point, and the final outputs at another point. Current flow occurs through each individual resistor. As a result of parallel connection, as the number of connected resistors increases, the number of paths for current flow also increases. The total resistance in such a section decreases in proportion to the number of connected resistors. It will always be less than the resistance of any resistor connected in parallel.

Most often in radio electronics, a mixed connection is used, which is a combination of parallel and serial options.

In the diagram shown, resistors R2 and R3 are connected in parallel. The series connection includes resistor R1, a combination of R2 and R3, and resistor R4. In order to calculate the resistance of such a connection, the entire circuit is divided into several simple sections. After this, the resistance values ​​are summed up and the overall result is obtained.

Semiconductors

A standard semiconductor diode consists of two terminals and one rectifying electrical junction. All elements of the system are combined in a common housing made of ceramic, glass, metal or plastic. One part of the crystal is called the emitter, due to the high concentration of impurities, and the other part, with a low concentration, is called the base. The marking of semiconductors on the diagrams reflects their design features and technical characteristics.

Germanium or silicon is used to make semiconductors. In the first case, it is possible to achieve a higher transmission coefficient. Elements made of germanium are characterized by increased conductivity, for which even a low voltage is sufficient.

Depending on the design, semiconductors can be point or planar, and according to technological characteristics they can be rectifier, pulse or universal.

Capacitors

A capacitor is a system that includes two or more electrodes made in the form of plates - plates. They are separated by a dielectric, which is much thinner than the capacitor plates. The whole device has mutual capacitance and has the ability to store electric charge. On the simplest scheme The capacitor is presented in the form of two parallel metal plates separated by some dielectric material.

On the circuit diagram, next to the image of the capacitor, its nominal capacitance is indicated in microfarads (μF) or picofarads (pF). When designating electrolytic and high-voltage capacitors, after the rated capacitance the value of the maximum operating voltage, measured in volts (V) or kilovolts (kV), is indicated.

Variable capacitors

To designate capacitors with variable capacitance, two parallel segments are used, which are crossed by an inclined arrow. Movable plates connected at a certain point in the circuit are depicted as a short arc. Next to it is a designation for the minimum and maximum capacity. A block of capacitors, consisting of several sections, is combined using a dashed line intersecting the adjustment signs (arrows).

The trimmer capacitor designation includes a slanted line with a dash at the end instead of an arrow. The rotor appears as a short arc. Other elements - thermal capacitors - are designated by the letters SK. In its graphic representation, a temperature symbol is placed next to the nonlinear regulation sign.

Permanent capacitors

Graphic symbols for capacitors with constant capacitance are widely used. They are depicted as two parallel segments and conclusions from the middle of each of them. The letter C is placed next to the icon, after it - the serial number of the element and, with a small interval, a numerical designation of the nominal capacity.

When using a capacitor with in a circuit, an asterisk is placed instead of its serial number. The rated voltage value is indicated only for high voltage circuits. This applies to all capacitors except electrolytic ones. The digital voltage symbol is placed after the capacity designation.

The connection of many electrolytic capacitors requires correct polarity. In the diagrams, a “+” sign or a narrow rectangle is used to indicate a positive cover. In the absence of polarity, narrow rectangles mark both plates.

Diodes and Zener diodes

Diodes are the simplest semiconductor devices that operate on the basis of an electron-hole junction known as a pn junction. The property of one-way conductivity is clearly conveyed in graphic symbols. A standard diode is depicted as a triangle, symbolizing the anode. The apex of the triangle indicates the direction of conduction and abuts the transverse line indicating the cathode. The entire image is intersected in the center by an electrical circuit line.

The letter designation VD is used. It displays not only individual elements, but also entire groups, for example, . The type of a particular diode is indicated next to its position designation.

The basic symbol is also used to designate zener diodes, which are semiconductor diodes with special properties. The cathode has a short stroke directed towards the triangle, symbolizing the anode. This stroke is positioned unchanged, regardless of the position of the zener diode icon on the circuit diagram.

Transistors

Most electronic components have only two terminals. However, elements such as transistors are equipped with three terminals. Their designs come in a variety of types, shapes and sizes. General principles their jobs are the same, but the slight differences are due to technical characteristics specific element.

Transistors are used primarily as electronic switches to turn various devices on and off. The main convenience of such devices is the ability to switch high voltages using a low voltage source.

At its core, each transistor is a semiconductor device with the help of which it generates, amplifies and converts electrical vibrations. The most widespread are bipolar transistors with the same electrical conductivity of the emitter and collector.

In the diagrams they are designated by the letter code VT. The graphic image is a short dash with a line extending from the middle of it. This symbol indicates the base. Two inclined lines are drawn to its edges at an angle of 60 0, displaying the emitter and collector.

The electrical conductivity of the base depends on the direction of the emitter arrow. If it is directed towards the base, then the electrical conductivity of the emitter is p, and that of the base is n. When the arrow is directed in the opposite direction, the emitter and base change their electrical conductivity to the opposite value. Knowledge of electrical conductivity is necessary to correctly connect the transistor to the power source.

In order to make the designation on the diagrams of radio components of the transistor more clear, it is placed in a circle indicating the housing. In some cases, a metal housing is connected to one of the terminals of the element. Such a place on the diagram is displayed as a dot placed where the pin intersects with the housing symbol. If there is a separate terminal on the case, then the line indicating the terminal can be connected to a circle without a dot. Near the positional designation of the transistor its type is indicated, which can significantly increase the information content of the circuit.

Letter designations on radio component diagrams

Basic designation	Item name	Additional designation	Device type
	Device		Current regulator
			Relay block
			Device
	Converters		Speaker
			Thermal sensor
			Photocell
			Microphone
			Pickup
	Capacitors		Power capacitor bank
			Charging capacitor block
	Integrated circuits, microassemblies		IC analog
			Digital IC, logic element
	Elements are different		Thermal electric heater
			Lighting lamp
	Arresters, fuses, protective devices		Discrete instantaneous current protection element
			The same for inertial current
			fuse
			Arrester
	Generators, power supplies		Battery
			Synchronous compensator
			Generator exciter
	Indicating and signaling devices		Sound alarm device
			Indicator
			Light signaling device
			Signal board
			Signal lamp with green lens
			Signal lamp with red lens
			Signal lamp with white lens
			Ionic and semiconductor indicators
	Relays, contactors, starters		Current relay
			Indicator relay
			Electrothermal relay
			Contactor, magnetic starter
			Time relay
			Voltage relay
			Enable command relay
			Trip command relay
			Intermediate relay
	Inductors, chokes		Fluorescent lighting control
			Action time meter, clock
			Voltmeter
			Wattmeter
	Power switches and disconnectors		Automatic switch
	Resistors		Thermistor
			Potentiometer
			Measuring shunt
			Varistor
	Switching device in control, signaling and measuring circuits		Switch or switch
			Push-button switch
			Automatic switch
	Autotransformers		Current transformer
			Voltage transformers
	Converters		Modulator
			Demodulator
			power unit
			Frequency converter
	Electrovacuum and semiconductor devices		Diode, zener diode
			Electrovacuum device
			Transistor
			Thyristor
	Contact connectors		Current collector
			High frequency connector
	Mechanical devices with electromagnetic drive		Electromagnet
			Electromagnetic lock

In the article you will learn about what radio components exist. The designations on the diagram according to GOST will be reviewed. You need to start with the most common ones - resistors and capacitors.

To assemble any structure, you need to know what radio components look like in reality, as well as how they are indicated on the electrical diagrams. There are a lot of radio components - transistors, capacitors, resistors, diodes, etc.

Capacitors

Capacitors are parts that are found in any design without exception. Typically, the simplest capacitors are two metal plates. And air acts as a dielectric component. I immediately remember my physics lessons at school, when we covered the topic of capacitors. The model was two huge flat round pieces of iron. They were brought closer to each other, then further away. And measurements were taken in each position. It is worth noting that mica can be used instead of air, as well as any material that does not conduct electricity. The designations of radio components on imported circuit diagrams differ from GOST standards adopted in our country.

Please note that regular capacitors do not carry direct current. On the other hand, it passes through it without any particular difficulties. Given this property, a capacitor is installed only where it is necessary to separate the alternating component in direct current. Therefore, we can make an equivalent circuit (using Kirchhoff’s theorem):

1. When operating on alternating current, the capacitor is replaced by a piece of conductor with zero resistance.
2. When operating in a DC circuit, the capacitor is replaced (no, not by capacitance!) by resistance.

The main characteristic of a capacitor is its electrical capacitance. The unit of capacitance is Farad. It's very big. In practice, as a rule, they are used which are measured in microfarads, nanofarads, microfarads. In the diagrams, the capacitor is indicated in the form of two parallel lines, from which there are taps.

Variable capacitors

There is also a type of device in which the capacity changes (in this case due to the fact that there are movable plates). The capacitance depends on the size of the plate (in the formula, S is its area), as well as on the distance between the electrodes. In a variable capacitor with an air dielectric, for example, due to the presence of a moving part, it is possible to quickly change the area. Consequently, the capacity will also change. But the designation of radio components on foreign diagrams is somewhat different. A resistor, for example, is depicted on them as a broken curve.

Permanent capacitors

These elements have differences in design, as well as in the materials from which they are made. The most popular types of dielectrics can be distinguished:

1. Air.
2. Mica.
3. Ceramics.

But this applies exclusively to non-polar elements. There are also electrolytic capacitors (polar). It is these elements that have very large capacities - ranging from tenths of microfarads to several thousand. In addition to the capacity, such elements have one more parameter - the maximum voltage value at which its use is allowed. These parameters are written on the diagrams and on the capacitor housings.

on the diagrams

It is worth noting that in the case of using trimmer or variable capacitors, two values ​​are indicated - the minimum and maximum capacitance. In fact, on the case you can always find a certain range in which the capacitance will change if you turn the axis of the device from one extreme position to another.

Let's say we have a variable capacitor with a capacitance of 9-240 (default measurement in picofarads). This means that with minimal plate overlap the capacitance will be 9 pF. And at the maximum - 240 pF. It is worth considering in more detail the designation of radio components on the diagram and their name in order to be able to correctly read technical documentation.

Connection of capacitors

We can immediately distinguish three types (there are just so many) combinations of elements:

1. Sequential- the total capacity of the entire chain is quite easy to calculate. In this case, it will be equal to the product of all the capacities of the elements divided by their sum.
2. Parallel- in this case, calculating the total capacity is even easier. It is necessary to add up the capacitances of all capacitors in the chain.
3. Mixed- in this case, the diagram is divided into several parts. We can say that it is simplified - one part contains only elements connected in parallel, the second - only in series.

And that's just general information about capacitors, in fact, you can talk a lot about them, citing interesting experiments as examples.

Resistors: general information

These elements can also be found in any design - be it in a radio receiver or in a control circuit on a microcontroller. This is a porcelain tube on which a thin film of metal (carbon - in particular, soot) is sprayed on the outside. However, you can even apply graphite - the effect will be similar. If resistors have very low resistance and high power, then it is used as a conductive layer

The main characteristic of a resistor is resistance. Used in electrical circuits to set the required current value in certain circuits. In physics lessons, a comparison was made with a barrel filled with water: if you change the diameter of the pipe, you can adjust the speed of the stream. It is worth noting that the resistance depends on the thickness of the conductive layer. The thinner this layer, the higher the resistance. In this case, the symbols of radio components on the diagrams do not depend on the size of the element.

Fixed resistors

As for such elements, the most common types can be distinguished:

1. Metallized varnished heat-resistant - abbreviated as MLT.
2. Moisture-resistant resistance - VS.
3. Carbon varnished small-sized - ULM.

Resistors have two main parameters - power and resistance. The last parameter is measured in Ohms. But this unit of measurement is extremely small, so in practice you will more often find elements whose resistance is measured in megaohms and kiloohms. Power is measured exclusively in Watts. Moreover, the dimensions of the element depend on the power. The larger it is, the larger the element. And now about what designation exists for radio components. On diagrams of imported and domestic devices, all elements may be designated differently.

On domestic circuits, a resistor is a small rectangle with an aspect ratio of 1:3; its parameters are written either on the side (if the element is located vertically) or on top (in the case of a horizontal arrangement). First, the Latin letter R is indicated, then the serial number of the resistor in the circuit.

Variable resistor (potentiometer)

Constant resistances have only two terminals. But there are three variables. On the electrical diagrams and on the element body, the resistance between the two extreme contacts is indicated. But between the middle and any of the extremes, the resistance will change depending on the position of the resistor axis. Moreover, if you connect two ohmmeters, you can see how the reading of one will change downwards, and the second - up. Need to understand how to read diagrams radio-electronic devices. It will also be useful to know the designations of radio components.

The total resistance (between the extreme terminals) will remain unchanged. Variable resistors are used to control gain (you use them to change the volume on radios and televisions). In addition, variable resistors are actively used in cars. These are fuel level sensors, electric motor speed controllers, and lighting brightness controllers.

Connection of resistors

In this case, the picture is completely opposite to that of capacitors:

1. Serial connection- the resistance of all elements in the circuit adds up.
2. Parallel connection- the product of resistances is divided by the sum.
3. Mixed- the entire circuit is divided into smaller chains and calculated step by step.

With this, you can close the review of resistors and begin to describe the most interesting elements - semiconductor ones (designations of radio components on the diagrams, GOST for UGO, are discussed below).

Semiconductors

This is the largest part of all radio elements, since semiconductors include not only zener diodes, transistors, diodes, but also varicaps, variconds, thyristors, triacs, microcircuits, etc. Yes, microcircuits are one crystal on which can be a great variety of radioelements - capacitors, resistances, and p-n junctions.

As you know, there are conductors (metals, for example), dielectrics (wood, plastic, fabrics). Can be different designations radio components in the diagram (the triangle is most likely a diode or zener diode). But it is worth noting that a triangle without additional elements denotes logical ground in microprocessor technology.

These materials either conduct current or not, regardless of their state of aggregation. But there are also semiconductors whose properties change depending on specific conditions. These are materials such as silicon and germanium. By the way, glass can also be partly classified as a semiconductor - in its normal state it does not conduct current, but when heated the picture is completely opposite.

Diodes and Zener diodes

A semiconductor diode has only two electrodes: a cathode (negative) and an anode (positive). But what are the features of this radio component? You can see the designations on the diagram above. So, you connect the power supply with positive to the anode and negative to the cathode. In this case, electric current will flow from one electrode to another. It is worth noting that the element in this case has extremely low resistance. Now you can conduct an experiment and connect the battery in reverse, then the resistance to the current increases several times, and it stops flowing. And if you send it through a diode alternating current, then the output will be constant (though with small ripples). When using a bridge switching circuit, two half-waves (positive) are obtained.

Zener diodes, like diodes, have two electrodes - a cathode and an anode. When connected directly, this element works in exactly the same way as the diode discussed above. But if you turn the current in the opposite direction, you can see a very interesting picture. Initially, the zener diode does not pass current through itself. But when the voltage reaches a certain value, breakdown occurs and the element conducts current. This is the stabilization voltage. A very good property, thanks to which it is possible to achieve stable voltage in circuits and completely get rid of fluctuations, even the smallest ones. The designation of radio components in the diagrams is in the form of a triangle, and at its apex there is a line perpendicular to the height.

Transistors

If diodes and zener diodes can sometimes not even be found in designs, then you will find transistors in any (except Transistors have three electrodes:

1. Base (abbreviated as "B").
2. Collector (K).
3. Emitter (E).

Transistors can operate in several modes, but most often they are used in amplification and switch modes (like a switch). A comparison can be made with a megaphone - they shouted into the base, and an amplified voice flew out of the collector. And hold the emitter with your hand - this is the body. The main characteristic of transistors is the gain (ratio of collector and base current). It is this parameter, along with many others, that is basic for this radio component. The symbols on the diagram for a transistor are a vertical line and two lines approaching it at an angle. There are several most common types of transistors:

1. Polar.
2. Bipolar.
3. Field.

There are also transistor assemblies consisting of several amplification elements. These are the most common radio components that exist. The designations on the diagram were discussed in the article.

Radio elements (radio components) are electronic components assembled into components of digital and analog equipment. Radio components have found their application in video technology, sound devices, smartphones and telephones, televisions and measuring instruments, computers and laptops, office equipment and other equipment.

Types of radioelements

Radioelements connected through conductor elements collectively form an electrical circuit, which can also be called a “functional unit”. A set of electrical circuits made of radioelements, which are located in a separate common housing, is called a microcircuit - a radio-electronic assembly; it can perform many different functions.

All electronic components used in household and digital appliances are classified as radio components. It is quite problematic to list all the subtypes and types of radio components, since the result is a huge list that is constantly expanding.

To designate radio components in diagrams, both graphical symbols (GSD) and alphanumeric symbols are used.

According to the method of action in an electrical circuit, they can be divided into two types:

1. Active;
2. Passive.

Active type

Active electronic components are completely dependent on external factors, under the influence of which they change their parameters. It is this group that brings energy into the electrical circuit.

The following main representatives of this class are distinguished:

1. Transistors are semiconductor triodes that, through an input signal, can monitor and control electrical voltage in a circuit. Before the advent of transistors, their function was performed vacuum tubes, which consumed more electricity and were not compact;
2. Diode elements are semiconductors that conduct electric current only in a single direction. They contain one electrical junction and two terminals and are made from silicon. In turn, diodes are divided according to frequency range, design, purpose, dimensions of junctions;
3. Microcircuits are composite components in which capacitors, resistors, diode elements, transistors and other things are integrated into a semiconductor substrate. They are designed to convert electrical impulses and signals into digital, analog and analog-to-digital information. They can be produced without a housing or in it.

There are many more representatives of this class, but they are used less frequently.

Passive type

Passive electronic components do not depend on the flow of electrical current, voltage and other external factors. They can either consume or accumulate energy in an electrical circuit.

The following radioelements can be distinguished in this group:

1. Resistors are devices that redistribute electric current between the components of a microcircuit. They are classified according to manufacturing technology, installation and protection method, purpose, current-voltage characteristics, nature of resistance changes;
2. Transformers are electromagnetic devices used to convert one alternating current system to another while maintaining the frequency. Such a radio component consists of several (or one) wire coils covered by a magnetic flux. Transformers can be matching, power, pulse, isolation, as well as current and voltage devices;
3. Capacitors are an element that serves to accumulate electric current and subsequently release it. They consist of several electrodes separated by dielectric elements. Capacitors are classified according to the type of dielectric components: liquid, solid organic and inorganic, gaseous;
4. Inductive coils are conductor devices that serve to limit alternating current, suppress interference, and store electricity. The conductor is placed under an insulating layer.

Marking of radio components

Marking of radio components is usually done by the manufacturer and is located on the product body. Marking of such elements can be:

• symbolic;
• color;
• symbolic and color at the same time.

Important! The marking of imported radio components may differ significantly from the marking of domestically produced elements of the same type.

On a note. Every radio amateur, when trying to decipher a particular radio component, resorts to a reference book, since it is not always possible to do this from memory due to the huge variety of models.

The designation of radioelements (labeling) of European manufacturers often occurs according to a specific alphanumeric system consisting of five characters (three numbers and two letters for products of general use, two numbers and three letters for special equipment). The numbers in such a system determine the technical parameters of the part.

European wide-spread semiconductor labeling system

1st letter – material coding
A	The main component is germanium
B	Silicon
C	A compound of gallium and arsenic – gallium arsenide
R	Cadmium sulfide
2nd letter – type of product or its description
A	Low power diode element
B	Varicap
C	Low power transistor operating at low frequencies
D	Powerful transistor operating at low frequencies
E	Tunnel Diode Component
F	High frequency low power transistor
G	More than one device in a single housing
H	Magnetic diode
L	Powerful transistor operating at high frequency
M	Hall Sensor
P	Phototransistor
Q	Light diode
R	Low power switching device
S	Low-power switching transistor
T	Powerful switching device
U	Powerful switching transistor
X	Multiplying diode element
Y	High Power Diode Rectifier Element
Z	Zener diode

Designation of radio components on electrical circuits

Due to the fact that there are a huge number of different radio-electronic components, norms and rules for their graphic designation on a microcircuit have been adopted at the legislative level. These regulations are called GOSTs, which provide comprehensive information on the type and dimensional parameters graphic image and additional symbolic clarifications.

Important! If a radio amateur draws up a circuit for himself, then GOST standards can be neglected. However, if the electrical circuit being drawn up will be submitted for examination or verification to various commissions and government agencies, then it is recommended to check everything with the latest GOSTs - they are constantly being supplemented and changed.

The designation of radio components of the “resistor” type, located on the board, looks like a rectangle in the drawing, next to it is the letter “R” and a number - a serial number. For example, “R20” means that the resistor in the diagram is the 20th in a row. Inside the rectangle, its operating power can be written, which it can dissipate for a long time without collapsing. The current passing through this element dissipates a specific power, thereby heating it. If the power is greater than the rated value, the radio product will fail.

Each element, like a resistor, has its own requirements for the outline on the circuit drawing, conventional alphabetic and digital designations. To search for such rules, you can use a variety of literature, reference books and numerous Internet resources.

Any radio amateur must understand the types of radio components, their markings and conventional graphic designations, since it is precisely this knowledge that will help him correctly draw up or read an existing diagram.

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